The CASES Expert Statement on Measuring Perfectionism in Sport and Exercise
Abstract
The pursuit of perfection is pervasive in sport and exercise domains. It is encouraged, praised, and often considered necessary for success at the highest levels. When manifested as a personality trait, perfectionism is defined as a combination of excessively high standards and overly critical self-evaluations (Frost et al., 1990). It is a complex trait that is potentially both a significant energising factor and destructive force for athletes and exercisers.
To study it, and provide appropriate support and guidance where needed, sport and exercise scientists need valid and reliable measures of perfectionism. However, there is currently an abundance of measures available, which poses a significant barrier for those unfamiliar with the area. This expert statement aims to remove this barrier by offering clear recommendations on how best to measure perfectionism in sport and exercise.
First, we will define and provide an overview of trait perfectionism, laying the conceptual foundations and psychometric basis for our measurement recommendations. This includes the two-factor, higher-order model of perfectionism, which is a major development in the study of perfectionism and delineates two broad higher-order dimensions of perfectionism—perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns (Hill et al., 2023; Gotwals et al., 2012).
Next, we will present and critique the most common, valid, and reliable proxy measures of perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns. We will pay particular attention to the key features of these measures, including domain-specificity, their psychometric evidence, and the common practices used to maximise their utility.
Finally, we will show how these measures can be used to determine the independent, combined, and interactive effects of perfectionism, as well as how these effects can differ depending on the measures used.
References
| Frost, R.O. et al. (1990). The dimensions of perfectionism. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14(5), 449-468. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01172967 | ||||
| Gotwals, J.K. & Dunn, J.G.H. (2009). A multi-method multi-analytic approach to establishing internal construct validity evidence: The Sport Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale 2. Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science, 13(2), 71-92. https://doi.org/10.1080/10913670902812663 | ||||
| Hill, A.P. (2021). Perfectionistic tipping points: Re-probing interactive effects of perfectionism. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 10(2), 177-190. https://doi.org/10.1037/spy0000226 | ||||
| Hill, A.P., Appleton, P.R., & Mallinson, S.H. (2016). Development and initial validation of the Performance Perfectionism Scale for Sport (PPS-S). Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 34(7), 653-669. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282916651354 | ||||
| Hill, A.P. et al. (2024). Exploring and evaluating the Two-Factor Model of Perfectionism in sport. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 42(6), 612-634. https://doi.org/10.1177/07342829241231149 | ||||
| Hill, A.P., Madigan, D.J., & Olamaie, M. (2021). Combined effects, total unique effects and relative weights of perfectionism. Personality and Individual Differences, 183, 111136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.111136 | ||||
| Jowett, G.E. et al. (2023). An update and extension of the independent effects approach to perfectionism in sport, dance, and exercise. In A.P. Hill (Ed.), The psychology of perfectionism in sport, dance, and exercise (pp. 75-161). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003288015-6 | ||||
| Madigan, D.J. (2016). Confirmatory factor analysis of the Multidimensional Inventory of Perfectionism in Sport. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 26, 48-51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2016.06.003 | ||||
| Madigan, D.J. (2023). Advances in the measurement of perfectionism in sport, dance, and exercise. In A.P. Hill (Ed.), The psychology of perfectionism in sport, dance, and exercise (pp. 26-50). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003288015-3 | ||||
Keywords
Expert Statement